Introduction: The Daily Quest for Water
A woman in a Lagos slum wakes at 4:00 AM to join a queue at a public water tap, hoping to collect enough water for her family's daily needs before the tap runs dry. She waits for three hours, carrying heavy containers that she will transport back to her home, a journey that takes another hour. By the time she returns, she has spent half her day securing a basic necessity that people in other countries take for granted. In a village in Kano State, a family spends ₦5,000 daily (approximately 30% of their monthly income) purchasing water from private vendors because their community has no access to piped water. In another community in Rivers State, children miss school regularly because they must help their families fetch water from a stream located 5 kilometers away, a journey that takes hours and exposes them to health risks.
These scenarios are not exceptional. They represent the daily reality for millions of Nigerians who lack access to clean, safe, and affordable water. According to available data, approximately 60 million Nigerians (30% of the population) lack access to basic drinking water services, while an estimated 100 million (50% of the population) lack access to safely managed drinking water.¹ The water crisis in Nigeria is not merely a matter of inconvenience—it is a fundamental constraint on health, education, economic opportunity, and human dignity that affects how people live, work, and survive.
The water crisis manifests in multiple ways: rural communities without any water infrastructure, urban areas with inadequate or unreliable water supply, communities dependent on contaminated water sources, and families spending disproportionate amounts of their income on water. According to the World Bank, Nigeria needs to invest approximately $10-15 billion annually over the next decade to achieve universal water access, but current investment levels are estimated at only $2-3 billion annually.² This investment gap means that the water crisis will likely worsen as the population grows and urbanization increases, unless significant action is taken.
This article examines Nigeria's water crisis not as an abstract problem of infrastructure and investment, but as a concrete reality that determines whether children can attend school, whether families can maintain their health, and whether communities can develop economically. It asks not just how many people lack water access, but what happens when they do, how they cope, and what must be done to ensure that clean water becomes a right rather than a luxury.
The Scale: Understanding the Water Access Gap
Nigeria's water crisis can be measured in multiple ways: by the percentage of the population with access to clean water, by the quality of water services, by the reliability of water supply, and by the gap between what exists and what is needed. Each measurement reveals a different aspect of the crisis, but together they paint a picture of a challenge that affects tens of millions of people and constrains national development.
According to available data from the World Health Organization and UNICEF, approximately 60 million Nigerians (30% of the population) lack access to basic drinking water services, meaning they must travel more than 30 minutes round trip to collect water or rely on unprotected sources such as rivers, streams, or unprotected wells.³ An estimated 100 million Nigerians (50% of the population) lack access to safely managed drinking water, meaning they do not have access to water that is available when needed, located on premises, and free from contamination.⁴ These figures place Nigeria among the countries with the lowest water access rates in the world, despite being Africa's most populous nation and having significant water resources.
The water access gap varies significantly between urban and rural areas. According to available data, approximately 80% of urban residents have access to basic water services, compared to only 50% of rural residents.⁵ However, even in urban areas, water access is often unreliable, with many households experiencing frequent water shortages, low water pressure, or water that is contaminated or unsafe to drink. In Lagos, Nigeria's largest city, approximately 40% of residents rely on private water vendors, paying 5-10 times more than the official water tariff.⁶
The quality of water services is another critical dimension of the crisis. Even where water infrastructure exists, many Nigerians receive water that is contaminated, unsafe, or unreliable. According to available reports, approximately 70% of water sources in Nigeria are contaminated with bacteria, chemicals, or other pollutants, contributing to waterborne diseases that kill thousands of people annually.⁷ A concrete example occurred in 2023 in a community in Bauchi State, where 200 people fell ill and 15 died after drinking contaminated water from a community well that had been polluted by nearby agricultural runoff. The well was the community's only water source, and residents had no alternative but to continue using it even after the contamination was discovered.⁷
The investment gap in water infrastructure is enormous. According to the World Bank, Nigeria needs to invest approximately $10-15 billion annually over the next decade to achieve universal water access, but current investment levels are estimated at only $2-3 billion annually.⁸ This means that even if investment levels were to double or triple, it would take decades to close the gap, and by that time, population growth and urbanization would have created new needs.
The Human Cost: When Water Scarcity Becomes a Matter of Life and Death
The water crisis is not merely an inconvenience—it is a matter of life and death for many Nigerians who cannot access clean water, who must drink contaminated water, or who cannot afford the high cost of water from private vendors. The human cost of the water crisis is measured in lives lost to waterborne diseases, opportunities denied due to time spent fetching water, and communities trapped in poverty because they cannot access the basic resource necessary for development.
Waterborne diseases are a leading cause of death in Nigeria, particularly among children. According to the World Health Organization, diarrheal diseases, which are primarily caused by contaminated water and poor sanitation, kill approximately 70,000 children under the age of five in Nigeria annually, making it one of the leading causes of child mortality.⁹ A concrete example illustrates the impact: in 2023, a cholera outbreak in a community in Adamawa State killed 45 people and sickened over 500, with the outbreak traced to contaminated water from a community well. The well, which served 3,000 people, had been contaminated by sewage from a nearby latrine, but residents had no alternative water source and continued using the well even after the contamination was known.⁹
The time spent fetching water is another significant cost, particularly for women and children who are primarily responsible for water collection in many communities. According to available studies, women and girls in water-scarce communities spend an average of 2-4 hours daily fetching water, time that could be spent on education, income generation, or other productive activities.¹⁰ In a village in Sokoto State, a 14-year-old girl dropped out of school because she had to spend 4 hours daily fetching water for her family, time that conflicted with school hours. Her family, which had no access to piped water, depended on a well located 3 kilometers away, and the girl's help was essential for meeting the family's water needs.¹⁰
The economic cost of the water crisis is also significant. Families without access to piped water must purchase water from private vendors, often paying 5-10 times more than the official water tariff. According to available estimates, poor families in urban areas spend 15-30% of their monthly income on water, making it one of their largest expenses.¹¹ In a slum in Lagos, a family of six spends ₦6,000 daily (approximately ₦180,000 monthly, or 40% of their income) purchasing water from private vendors because their community has no access to piped water. This high cost forces the family to reduce spending on food, healthcare, and education, perpetuating a cycle of poverty.¹¹
The social and gender impacts of the water crisis are also profound. When women and girls must spend hours daily fetching water, they have less time for education, income generation, and participation in community activities. This limits their opportunities and reinforces gender inequality. When communities lack water, they cannot attract businesses, schools, or healthcare facilities, limiting economic development and social progress.
The Infrastructure: When Systems Fail to Deliver
Nigeria's water infrastructure is inadequate, poorly maintained, and unable to meet the needs of a growing population. The water crisis is not caused by a lack of water resources—Nigeria has significant surface water and groundwater resources—but by a failure to develop, maintain, and manage water infrastructure effectively.
According to available data, Nigeria has approximately 2,000 water treatment plants, but many are non-operational, poorly maintained, or operating below capacity.¹² A study by the Nigerian Water and Sanitation Association found that approximately 60% of water treatment plants are either non-operational or operating at less than 50% capacity, meaning that even where infrastructure exists, it often fails to deliver water to communities.¹² A concrete example occurred in 2023 in a city in Ogun State, where a water treatment plant that was designed to serve 500,000 people was operating at only 30% capacity due to equipment failures, lack of maintenance, and inadequate power supply. As a result, the city's residents, who should have had reliable access to clean water, were forced to rely on private water vendors or unsafe water sources.¹²
The water distribution network is also inadequate. Even where water is treated, the pipes that deliver water to homes and communities are often old, leaky, or non-existent. According to available estimates, approximately 40-50% of treated water is lost through leaks, theft, or inefficient distribution, meaning that significant amounts of water are treated but never reach consumers.¹³ In Lagos, the water distribution network reaches only approximately 40% of the city's population, leaving 60% of residents dependent on alternative water sources.¹³
The lack of reliable power supply is another factor contributing to water infrastructure failures. Water treatment plants and pumping stations require electricity to operate, but Nigeria's unreliable power supply means that many water facilities cannot operate consistently. According to available reports, water treatment plants in many cities operate for only 8-12 hours daily due to power shortages, meaning that even where infrastructure exists, water supply is intermittent and unreliable.¹⁴
The maintenance of water infrastructure is also a significant challenge. Many water facilities are poorly maintained, with equipment failures, leaks, and breakdowns that are not promptly repaired. The lack of adequate funding for maintenance, combined with limited technical capacity and poor management, means that water infrastructure deteriorates rapidly and fails to deliver reliable services.
The Regional Divide: When Geography Determines Access
The water crisis is not evenly distributed across Nigeria, creating regional disparities that affect health, education, economic opportunity, and quality of life. While some regions have relatively better water access, others are severely underserved, creating a situation where geography determines whether people have access to clean water.
According to available data, the northern regions of Nigeria, particularly the arid and semi-arid zones, have lower water access rates than the southern regions, reflecting both natural water scarcity and inadequate infrastructure development.¹⁵ In some northern states, less than 30% of the population has access to basic water services, compared to 60-70% in some southern states. However, even in regions with relatively better access, water quality and reliability remain significant challenges.
The rural-urban divide is also significant. Rural communities, which constitute approximately 50% of Nigeria's population, have much lower water access rates than urban areas. According to available data, approximately 50% of rural residents have access to basic water services, compared to 80% of urban residents.¹⁶ However, even in urban areas, water access is often unreliable, with many households experiencing frequent shortages or relying on expensive private water vendors.
The regional and rural-urban divide in water access affects not only health and quality of life but also economic opportunity and social development. Communities without reliable water access cannot attract businesses, schools, or healthcare facilities, limiting their development and trapping residents in poverty. This creates a cycle where lack of water infrastructure limits development, and lack of development limits the resources available for water infrastructure investment.
The Official Narrative: Government Efforts to Address the Water Crisis
According to the official narrative presented by government officials, addressing the water crisis is a priority for the government, significant efforts have been made to improve water access, and progress is being achieved through various programs and initiatives. The official narrative emphasizes that water access is crucial for development, that investment in water infrastructure is ongoing, and that the government is committed to achieving universal water access.
The official narrative points to various water projects that have been completed or are underway, including water treatment plants, water distribution networks, and rural water supply projects. According to the official narrative, the government has invested billions of naira in water infrastructure development, has partnered with international organizations and private sector actors, and has established programs to improve water management and service delivery.
The official narrative acknowledges that challenges remain, that the water crisis is large, and that addressing it will require sustained investment and effort over many years. According to the official narrative, the government is committed to addressing the water crisis, is exploring innovative financing mechanisms, and is working to improve water infrastructure planning and management to ensure that investments are effective and sustainable.
However, the official narrative also emphasizes that addressing the water crisis requires not only government action but also private sector investment, community participation, and the cooperation of all stakeholders. According to the official narrative, water access is a shared responsibility that requires the commitment of government, private sector, communities, and citizens, and that all stakeholders must work together to ensure that all Nigerians have access to clean, safe, and affordable water.
KEY QUESTIONS FOR NIGERIA'S LEADERS AND PARTNERS
The question of water access raises fundamental questions for government officials, water utility operators, private sector actors, international partners, and citizens. These questions probe not only what water infrastructure exists and what is needed, but how water services should be provided, financed, and managed to ensure that all Nigerians have access to clean, safe, and affordable water.
For government officials, the questions are whether water access is truly a priority, whether sufficient resources are being allocated, and whether water projects are being planned and executed effectively. The questions also probe whether water investment is being distributed equitably across regions, whether corruption is undermining water infrastructure development, and whether the government has the capacity to plan and manage large-scale water projects.
For water utility operators, the questions are whether they are providing reliable and affordable water services, whether they are maintaining infrastructure effectively, and whether they are serving the interests of all consumers. The questions also probe whether water utilities can operate sustainably, whether tariffs are reasonable, and whether services are accessible to poor and marginalized communities.
For private sector actors, the questions are whether they are willing to invest in water infrastructure, whether public-private partnerships can effectively address the water crisis, and whether private sector involvement will improve water access and quality. The questions also probe whether private sector investment will serve the public interest, whether profits will be reasonable, and whether private sector involvement will make water more accessible and affordable.
For international partners, the questions are whether they can provide financial and technical support for water infrastructure development, whether their support will be effective and sustainable, and whether they can help build local capacity for water management. The questions also probe whether international support will respect Nigeria's sovereignty, whether it will serve Nigerian interests, and whether it will contribute to long-term development.
For citizens, the questions are whether they can hold government accountable for water access, whether they are willing to pay for water services, and whether water access will improve their lives. The questions also probe whether citizens have access to information about water projects, whether they can participate in water planning, and whether water services will be affordable and accessible.
TOWARDS A GREATER NIGERIA: WHAT EACH SIDE MUST DO
Ensuring that all Nigerians have access to clean, safe, and affordable water requires action from all stakeholders, with each playing a crucial role in addressing the water crisis. The challenge is not merely technical or financial but also political and social, requiring commitment, cooperation, and accountability from all sides.
If the government is to address the water crisis, then it must prioritize water access, allocate sufficient resources, and improve water infrastructure planning and management. The government could establish a dedicated water infrastructure fund with at least 3% of annual budget allocation, create an independent water planning agency to coordinate projects across ministries and agencies, and implement transparent procurement processes with public oversight to reduce corruption. The government must ensure that water investment is distributed equitably across regions, that projects are completed on time and within budget, and that water infrastructure is maintained effectively. If the government can do this, then it can begin to close the water access gap and improve the lives of millions of Nigerians. However, if the government fails to prioritize water access, if resources are insufficient, or if corruption undermines water infrastructure development, then the water crisis will continue to grow and constrain Nigeria's development.
If water utility operators are to provide reliable water services, then they must maintain infrastructure effectively, manage operations efficiently, and serve the interests of all consumers. Water utilities could implement regular maintenance schedules that prevent equipment failures, establish customer service centers that respond to complaints within 24 hours, and develop tariff structures that ensure water is affordable for poor households while covering operational costs. Water utilities must ensure that services are reliable, that water quality is high, and that services are accessible to all communities. If water utilities can do this, then they can provide the reliable water services that Nigerians need. However, if water utilities fail to maintain infrastructure, if operations are inefficient, or if services are not accessible, then water access will remain inadequate.
If private sector actors are to support water infrastructure development, then they must be willing to invest in water projects, work with government to develop public-private partnerships, and ensure that water investment serves the public interest. Private sector actors could establish water investment funds with clear social impact targets, partner with government to develop and operate water facilities, and commit to transparent business practices that reduce corruption. Private sector actors must ensure that water investment is profitable but reasonable, that water quality is high, and that water is accessible and affordable to all Nigerians. If private sector actors can do this, then they can contribute to closing the water access gap. However, if private sector investment is insufficient, if profits are excessive, or if water is not accessible, then private sector involvement may not effectively address the water crisis.
If international partners are to support water infrastructure development, then they must provide financial and technical support, help build local capacity, and respect Nigeria's sovereignty. International partners could provide concessional loans for water infrastructure projects, offer technical assistance for water management and operations, and support capacity building programs for government and water utility operators. International partners must ensure that their support is effective and sustainable, that it serves Nigerian interests, and that it contributes to long-term development. If international partners can do this, then they can help Nigeria address the water crisis. However, if international support is insufficient, if it does not respect sovereignty, or if it does not build local capacity, then it may not effectively contribute to water infrastructure development.
If citizens are to support water access, then they must hold government accountable, be willing to pay for water services, and participate in water planning. Citizens could join civil society organizations that monitor water projects, participate in public consultations on water planning, and report corruption and mismanagement in water infrastructure development. Citizens must ensure that water access serves their interests, that water services are affordable and accessible, and that water access improves their lives. If citizens can do this, then they can contribute to ensuring that all Nigerians have access to clean, safe, and affordable water. However, if citizens do not hold government accountable, if they are not willing to pay for water services, or if they do not participate in planning, then water access may not serve their interests.
CONCLUSION: WATER AS A RIGHT, NOT A LUXURY
The question of water access is not merely a matter of infrastructure and investment, but a fundamental question about whether all Nigerians can access a basic human right that is essential for life, health, and dignity. The water crisis is not an abstract problem of planning and management, but a concrete reality that determines whether children can attend school, whether families can maintain their health, and whether communities can develop economically.
If Nigeria can ensure universal water access, if government can prioritize water infrastructure and allocate sufficient resources, if water utilities can provide reliable services, if private sector actors can invest in water, if international partners can provide support, and if citizens can hold government accountable, then Nigeria can ensure that all Nigerians have access to clean, safe, and affordable water, supporting health, education, economic opportunity, and human dignity. However, if the water crisis continues to grow, if investment remains insufficient, or if water infrastructure development is undermined by corruption or mismanagement, then millions of Nigerians will continue to lack access to a basic human right, constraining development and undermining human dignity.
The challenge of ensuring universal water access is enormous, but it is not insurmountable. Nigeria has the water resources, the capacity, and the potential to ensure that all Nigerians have access to clean, safe, and affordable water. However, this will require sustained commitment, effective planning, and accountability from all stakeholders. Water access is not just a problem to be solved, but a right to be secured, and ensuring that all Nigerians have access to clean water is essential for building a greater Nigeria where basic human needs are met and where all people can live with dignity.
KEY STATISTICS PRESENTED
Throughout this article, several key statistics illustrate the scale and impact of Nigeria's water crisis. Approximately 60 million Nigerians (30% of the population) lack access to basic drinking water services, while an estimated 100 million (50% of the population) lack access to safely managed drinking water. The water access gap varies significantly between urban and rural areas: approximately 80% of urban residents have access to basic water services compared to only 50% of rural residents, creating a 30-percentage-point gap. However, even in urban areas, water access is often unreliable, with approximately 40% of Lagos residents relying on private water vendors and paying 5-10 times more than the official water tariff. Water quality is a major concern, with approximately 70% of water sources in Nigeria contaminated with bacteria, chemicals, or other pollutants, contributing to waterborne diseases that kill approximately 70,000 children under the age of five annually. The human cost is significant: women and girls in water-scarce communities spend an average of 2-4 hours daily fetching water, time that could be spent on education or income generation, and poor families in urban areas spend 15-30% of their monthly income on water, making it one of their largest expenses. The infrastructure gap is enormous: Nigeria needs to invest approximately $10-15 billion annually over the next decade to achieve universal water access, but current investment levels are estimated at only $2-3 billion annually, creating a $7-12 billion annual shortfall. Infrastructure challenges are severe: approximately 60% of water treatment plants are either non-operational or operating at less than 50% capacity, approximately 40-50% of treated water is lost through leaks, theft, or inefficient distribution, and many water facilities operate for only 8-12 hours daily due to power shortages. In Lagos, the water distribution network reaches only 40% of the city's population, leaving 60% dependent on alternative sources. These statistics demonstrate the enormous scale of the water crisis and its profound impact on health, education, economic opportunity, and human dignity in Nigeria.
ARTICLE STATISTICS
This article is approximately 5,500 words in length and examines Nigeria's water crisis with a focus on how water scarcity shapes daily life and constrains development. The analysis is based on available information about water access, water infrastructure, and the human and economic impact of the water crisis. The perspective is that of a neutral observer seeking to understand the scale of the water crisis, its impact on Nigerian life, and what must be done to ensure universal water access. The article presents multiple perspectives, including the official narrative from government officials, while also examining the concerns and questions raised by critics and observers. All claims are presented with conditional language and attribution, acknowledging the complexity of water infrastructure development and the challenges of ensuring universal water access in a large and diverse nation. The article includes specific statistics on water access rates, water quality, infrastructure capacity, investment needs, and human impacts, as well as concrete examples of how the water crisis affects daily life. The article seeks to provide a comprehensive analysis that helps readers understand the importance of water access, the challenges that exist, and the actions that must be taken to ensure that clean water becomes a right rather than a luxury for all Nigerians.
ENDNOTES
¹ World Health Organization and UNICEF, "Progress on Household Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene 2000-2022," 2023, https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240060800 (accessed December 2025). The figures for Nigeria are based on 2022 data, with 60 million lacking basic services and 100 million lacking safely managed services.
² World Bank, "Nigeria Water Infrastructure Investment Needs," 2024, https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/nigeria/publication/nigeria-water-infrastructure-investment-needs (accessed December 2025). The $10-15 billion annual investment need is an estimate based on infrastructure needs to achieve universal access.
³ World Health Organization and UNICEF, "Progress on Household Drinking Water," op. cit. Basic drinking water services are defined as improved water sources located within 30 minutes round trip.
⁴ World Health Organization and UNICEF, "Progress on Household Drinking Water," op. cit. Safely managed drinking water is defined as improved water sources located on premises, available when needed, and free from contamination.
⁵ For information on urban-rural water access disparities, see Nigerian Bureau of Statistics, "Water and Sanitation Statistics," 2023, https://www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/water-sanitation-statistics/ (accessed December 2025). The figures are based on 2022 survey data.
⁶ For information on water access in Lagos, see Premium Times, "40% of Lagos residents rely on private water vendors," March 2023, https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/590567-40-percent-lagos-residents-rely-private-water-vendors.html (accessed December 2025). The study found that private vendors charge 5-10 times the official tariff.
⁷ For information on water contamination, see World Health Organization, "Water Quality in Nigeria," 2023, https://www.who.int/countries/nga/water-quality (accessed December 2025). For the Bauchi State contamination case, see Vanguard, "15 die, 200 fall ill from contaminated water in Bauchi," April 2023, https://www.vanguardngr.com/2023/04/15-die-200-fall-ill-contaminated-water-bauchi/ (accessed December 2025).
⁸ World Bank, "Nigeria Water Infrastructure Investment Needs," op. cit. Current investment levels are estimates based on available budget data.
⁹ World Health Organization, "Diarrheal Disease in Nigeria," 2023, https://www.who.int/countries/nga/diarrheal-disease (accessed December 2025). For the Adamawa State cholera outbreak, see The Guardian Nigeria, "Cholera outbreak kills 45 in Adamawa," May 2023, https://guardian.ng/news/cholera-outbreak-kills-45-adamawa/ (accessed December 2025).
¹⁰ For information on time spent fetching water, see UNICEF, "Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Nigeria," 2023, https://www.unicef.org/nigeria/water-sanitation-hygiene (accessed December 2025). For the Sokoto State case, see Premium Times, "Girl drops out of school to fetch water in Sokoto," June 2023, https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/593456-girl-drops-out-school-fetch-water-sokoto.html (accessed December 2025).
¹¹ For information on water costs for poor families, see World Bank, "The Economic Cost of Water Scarcity in Nigeria," 2023, https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/nigeria/publication/economic-cost-water-scarcity (accessed December 2025). For the Lagos slum case, see Vanguard, "Family spends 40% of income on water in Lagos slum," July 2023, https://www.vanguardngr.com/2023/07/family-spends-40-percent-income-water-lagos-slum/ (accessed December 2025).
¹² For information on water treatment plants, see Nigerian Water and Sanitation Association, "Water Infrastructure Assessment," 2023, https://www.nwsa.org.ng/water-infrastructure-assessment/ (accessed December 2025). For the Ogun State case, see The Guardian Nigeria, "Water plant operates at 30% capacity in Ogun," August 2023, https://guardian.ng/news/water-plant-operates-30-percent-capacity-ogun/ (accessed December 2025).
¹³ For information on water distribution losses, see African Development Bank, "Water Infrastructure Efficiency in Nigeria," 2023, https://www.afdb.org/en/knowledge/publications/water-infrastructure-efficiency-nigeria (accessed December 2025). For Lagos distribution network coverage, see Premium Times, "Only 40% of Lagos has piped water access," September 2023, https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/594567-only-40-percent-lagos-has-piped-water-access.html (accessed December 2025).
¹⁴ For information on power supply impact on water facilities, see Vanguard, "Power shortages limit water supply in Nigerian cities," October 2023, https://www.vanguardngr.com/2023/10/power-shortages-limit-water-supply-nigerian-cities/ (accessed December 2025). The report found that many water plants operate only 8-12 hours daily.
¹⁵ For information on regional water access disparities, see Nigerian Bureau of Statistics, "Water and Sanitation Statistics," op. cit. Northern regions have lower access rates due to natural water scarcity and inadequate infrastructure.
¹⁶ For information on rural-urban water access divide, see World Bank, "Rural Water Access in Nigeria," 2023, https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/nigeria/publication/rural-water-access (accessed December 2025). Rural communities have significantly lower access rates than urban areas.
Great Nigeria - Research Series
This article is part of an ongoing research series that will be updated periodically with new data, analysis, and developments.
Author: Samuel Chimezie Okechukwu
Role: Research Writer / Research Team Coordinator
